StellarPolitical Fragmentation and New States
By 1200 the Abbasid Caliphate, which had once ruled over a vast empire centered in Baghdad, was in decline. Invasions, rebellions, and shifting trade weakened its power. Yet Islamic civilization did not collapse with the Abbasids. Instead, new states rose up, often led by Turkic peoples, that carried Islamic traditions into new regions. The Seljuk Empire became dominant in parts of the Middle East, challenging both Christian Byzantines and other Muslim rulers. In Egypt, the Mamluks, who had begun as enslaved soldiers, overthrew their masters and built a sultanate that defended the Islamic world from Mongol invasions. In India, the Delhi Sultanates brought Islam to a largely Hindu population, creating centuries of interaction, adaptation, and tension between the two faiths. Even though political power was divided, these states shared a common religious foundation. Islamic law, religious scholarship, and cultural traditions provided continuity. Rulers built mosques, funded schools called madrasas, and claimed legitimacy through their defense of Islam.